Babylon, later periods

Babylon, one of the most renowned cities of the ancient world, experienced numerous shifts in power, culture, and influence throughout its history. Its role as a center of learning, especially in fields like astronomy and literature, left a lasting legacy that continued to influence the ancient world long after its political dominance had waned.
Following the fall of its first great dynasty, Babylon’s fate became a complex narrative shaped by various foreign rulers, dynastic struggles, and the efforts of local leaders to reclaim its glory.
The story of Babylon’s later periods is not merely a tale of conquest and decline but a testimony to its enduring cultural and intellectual contributions to civilization.

Ruins of a Summer palace with ancient Babylon in the background - Hillah, Iraq
Ruins of a Summer palace with ancient Babylon in the background - Hillah, Iraq

The Kassite Dynasty: Stability and Cultural Assimilation

The decline of Babylon began with its sacking by Mursili I, ruler of the Hittite Empire, in 1595 BCE. It created a power vacuum that two main contenders sought to fill: the First Sealand Dynasty in the southern marshlands and the Kassites in the north.
The Kassites, originating from the Zagros Mountains, established a remarkable dynasty that lasted over 576 years, from approximately 1475 BCE, marking one of the longest-lasting periods of stability in Babylonian history.
The Kassites not only conquered the Sealand Dynasty but also unified Babylonia into a single territorial state, called Karduniash, which endured even after the Kassite period ended, for 435 years, until 1160 BC. Although foreign in origin, the Kassites quickly assimilated into Babylonian culture, adopting its customs, language, and religion. Their era is also associated with the composition of the Babylonian creation epic, Enuma Elish, which elevated Marduk, Babylon's patron deity, to the apex of the Mesopotamian pantheon. This cultural integration significantly enhanced Babylon's prestige and cemented its role as a major religious center.

A map of the Babylonian Empire during the time of the Kassites, roughly the 13th century BC. This map shows the probable river courses and coastline at that time.
A map of the Babylonian Empire during the time of the Kassites, roughly the 13th century BC. This map shows the probable river courses and coastline at that time.

Babylon as an International Power under the Kassites

During the Kassite reign (c. 1500–1200 BCE), Babylon became an influential international power. The Babylonian kings were recognized as Great Kings by other contemporary powers, such as Egypt, Hatti, Mittani, Assyria, and Alashiya (Cyprus). Diplomatic relations and correspondence were maintained in the Babylonian dialect, which served as the lingua franca of the ancient Near East.
King Kurigalzu I of the Kassites is noted for bringing significant economic prosperity to Babylon, with gold imports from Egypt increasing so much that gold briefly replaced silver as the standard currency in Babylon. This economic success was paralleled by Babylon’s flourishing trade in luxury goods, such as lapis lazuli and fine horses, solidifying its position as a center of commerce and culture in the ancient world.

Detail of a symbolic base with a cuneiform inscription of Tukulti-Ninurta I, 13th century BCE. From the Temple of Ishtar at Assur, Iraq. Pergamon Museum, Berlin, Germany. Two men were depicted in relief, standing and kneeling holding a mace (representing the Assyrian king Tulkulti-Ninurta I, r. 1243-1207 BCE, in two movements), before a symbolic base with a symbol of the god Nabu of writing (not shown here). The cuneiform inscription mentions the name of the king and the god Nusku (Nuska)
Detail of a symbolic base with a cuneiform inscription of Tukulti-Ninurta I, 13th century BCE. From the Temple of Ishtar at Assur, Iraq. Pergamon Museum, Berlin, Germany. Two men were depicted in relief, standing and kneeling holding a mace (representing the Assyrian king Tulkulti-Ninurta I, r. 1243-1207 BCE, in two movements), before a symbolic base with a symbol of the god Nabu of writing (not shown here). The cuneiform inscription mentions the name of the king and the god Nusku (Nuska).

The Rise of Assyria and the Fall of the Kassites

Babylon’s prosperity under the Kassites was threatened by the growing power of Assyria to the north. Assyrian kings like Tukulti-Ninurta I (c. 1244–1208 BCE) began to challenge Babylonian dominance, eventually conquering Babylon and deposing the Kassite king, Kashtiliash IV. Despite these setbacks, the Kassites managed to briefly regain control before the Elamites delivered the final blow to their rule.
The Elamites, invading from the east, raided Babylon around 1155 BCE, plundering its temples and carrying off precious relics, including Hammurabi’s Law Code and the statue of Marduk. This marked the end of Kassite control, as Elamite invasions plunged Babylon into chaos, leading to the rise of new native dynasties.

Detail of the goddess Gula, her dog, and a scorpion man from kudurru of Nebuchadnezzar granting Šitti-Marduk freedom from taxation - British Museum, London
Detail of the goddess Gula, her dog, and a scorpion man from kudurru of Nebuchadnezzar granting Šitti-Marduk freedom from taxation - British Museum, London

Native Dynasties and Nebuchadnezzar I

Following the decline of the Kassite dynasty, Babylon experienced a brief period under native rule, with the Second Isin Dynasty (1157–1026 BCE) emerging as a dominant force. Nebuchadnezzar I (r. 1124–1103 BCE) was the most notable ruler of this period, renowned for his military campaigns against Elam, during which he reclaimed Marduk's cult statue and restored Babylon’s religious and political pride. Nebuchadnezzar I's victories over Elam turned him into a national hero and symbolized a brief resurgence of Babylonian power.
However, this renaissance was short-lived. The rise of the nomadic Aramaeans in northern Syria and their incursions into Mesopotamia led to widespread instability. The Aramaean invasions severely weakened the Second Isin Dynasty, contributing to its eventual downfall.

The Chaldeans and the Revival of Babylonian Power

The power vacuum left by the weakening Assyrian Empire was soon filled by the Chaldeans, a Semitic people settled in southern Babylonia. The Chaldeans, under leaders like Eriba-Marduk of the Bit-Yakin tribe, gradually took control of Babylon. Although originally nomadic, the Chaldeans adapted well to Babylonian culture and politics, eventually becoming significant players in the region's power dynamics.
The Nabonassar Era (747–734 BCE) marked a crucial period in Babylonian history when systematic astronomical records began to be kept. This era also saw the Chaldeans establish themselves as more than just tribal leaders, positioning themselves as legitimate rulers of Babylon with aspirations to restore its former glory.

Assyrian Relief Attack on Enemy Town from Kalhu (Nimrud) Central Palace reign of Tiglath-pileser III 730-727 BCE British Museum
Assyrian Relief Attack on Enemy Town from Kalhu (Nimrud) Central Palace reign of Tiglath-pileser III 730-727 BCE British Museum

Assyrian Dominance and Sennacherib's Devastation of Babylon

Despite the Chaldean rise, Babylon's fate was closely tied to the powerful Assyrian Empire. Assyrian kings like Tiglath-pileser III and Sargon II increasingly asserted control over Babylon, using both military force and political strategy. The conflicts between the Assyrians and the Chaldeans, led by Merodach-baladan II, became a hallmark of Babylonian resistance against foreign domination.
The situation reached its peak during the reign of Sennacherib (705–681 BCE), who, after repeated Babylonian rebellions, decided to take a drastic measure. In 689 BCE, Sennacherib razed Babylon to the ground, destroyed its temples, and deported the city's inhabitants. This brutal act aimed to break Babylon's spirit and prevent future insurrections but instead left a deep scar on Assyrian-Babylonian relations.

Sculpted reliefs depicting Ashurbanipal, the last great Assyrian king, hunting lions, gypsum hall relief from the North Palace of Nineveh (Irak), c. 645-635 BC, British Museum.
Sculpted reliefs depicting Ashurbanipal, the last great Assyrian king, hunting lions, gypsum hall relief from the North Palace of Nineveh (Irak), c. 645-635 BC, British Museum

After the devastation wrought by Sennacherib, his successor, Esarhaddon (680–669 BCE), adopted a more conciliatory approach. Esarhaddon sought to rebuild Babylon, restore its temples, and return the sacred statue of Marduk, an act that won him some favor among the Babylonian people. His efforts were part of a broader strategy to stabilize relations between Assyria and Babylonia.
Esarhaddon's son, Ashurbanipal, inherited a divided empire. Despite initial efforts to keep peace, civil war broke out between Babylon and Assyria once again. By 648 BCE, Babylon was under Assyrian control, and many Babylonian literary treasures were transferred to Ashurbanipal's grand library at Nineveh, ensuring the preservation of Mesopotamian cultural and intellectual achievements.

The Decline of Babylon and the Persian Conquest

By the end of the first millennium BCE, Babylon had experienced numerous cycles of resurgence and decline. The city’s political significance diminished as it came under the rule of successive empires, including the Neo-Babylonian, Persian, and eventually the Seleucid Empire. Alexander the Great’s brief reign over Babylon following his conquests in 331 BCE marked one of the city's last significant roles on the world stage.
Under Persian and later Seleucid rule, Babylon lost its status as a major power, with much of its population gradually relocating to other parts of the empire. By the time of Alexander's successors, Babylon had fallen into ruin, marking the end of its once-mighty influence over Mesopotamia and the ancient world.

Last update: October 21, 2024

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