The Second Sophistic: Revival of Rhetoric and Hellenic Culture in the Roman Empire

The Second Sophistic was a cultural and intellectual movement that emerged during the Roman Empire, roughly between the 1st and 3rd centuries AD. This term, coined by the Greek author Philostratus in his work Lives of the Sophists, refers to the revival of Greek rhetorical and educational traditions, initially developed by the Sophists in 5th-century BC Athens. Unlike its predecessor, the Second Sophistic was more focused on rhetoric and oratory, primarily detached from political and philosophical concerns, and played a significant role in shaping the intellectual landscape of the Greco-Roman world.
This movement began under the reign of Emperor Nero and continued to flourish until the early 3rd century AD, with its influence reaching a peak during the time of Hadrian and other philhellenic emperors. While initially thought to have appeared abruptly in the late 1st century, recent studies suggest that its roots extend back to the early 1st century AD. The Second Sophistic not only revived the techniques of classical Greek oratory but also laid the groundwork for future developments in Byzantine rhetoric, later termed the Third Sophistic in the 5th century.

On right, Roman emperor Hadrian in Greek dress offers a sprig of laurel to Apollo. From the temple of Apollo at Cyrene. According to Tracey Sweek, the head does not belong to the body - London, British Museum

Origins and Evolution of the Second Sophistic

The foundation of the Second Sophistic can be traced to Greek orators like Nicetes of Smyrna, Aelius Aristides, Dio Chrysostom, and Herodes Atticus, who led the movement in its early stages. Unlike the original Sophists, whose teachings often involved philosophical inquiries and political engagement, the Second Sophistic was almost entirely focused on the art of rhetoric—emphasizing performance, public speaking, and the revival of classical language and style.
Philostratus, the chronicler of this movement, linked its origins back to Aeschines, a 4th-century BC orator, although its more immediate beginnings are attributed to figures like Nicetes of Smyrna in the late 1st century AD. The movement distinguished itself from its predecessor by intentionally avoiding the political realm, concentrating instead on cultural and educational pursuits. It became a dominant force in higher education, influencing both the content and methods of learning throughout the Roman Empire.

Cultural Renaissance in the Roman Empire

The Roman Empire's integration of Greek culture played a pivotal role in the Second Sophistic's growth. After Rome's conquest of Greece in 146 BC, Greek culture remained highly influential within the Empire. Greek oratory, philosophy, literature, and art were admired and adopted by the Roman elites. This cultural assimilation was further reinforced by philhellenic emperors like Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius, who actively promoted Greek traditions within their court and among the Roman aristocracy.
Hadrian, in particular, was a significant patron of the Second Sophistic. He encouraged the study of Greek culture and even sent his adoptive son Antoninus Pius to study under the celebrated sophist Polemo of Smyrna. This patronage allowed Greek intellectuals to thrive and influence Roman society while preserving their cultural identity. The Second Sophistic became a vehicle for the Greeks to maintain their heritage and assert their cultural authority within the Roman Empire.

Definition and Role of the Sophist

During this period, sophists were regarded as masters of rhetoric and oratory, skilled in public speaking and debate. Their role was more than that of mere teachers; they were cultural ambassadors, intellectual leaders, and prominent figures in both local and imperial politics. Sophists like Lucian, Favorinus, and Philostratus favored Atticism, a return to the pure and classical forms of the Greek language, while others engaged with contemporary language styles (Koine Greek).

The Styles of Oratory: Asianism vs. Atticism

The Second Sophistic was characterized by two primary rhetorical styles: Asianism and Atticism. Asianism, often criticized by traditionalists, was known for its elaborate and emotional expression. It emphasized decorative language, rhetorical flourishes, and dramatic delivery. This style was prevalent in regions outside Athens, such as Ephesus and Smyrna, and was sometimes dismissed as overly theatrical or excessive.
In contrast, Atticism sought to emulate the simpler, more refined style of classical Athenian oratory. Practitioners like Aelius Aristides aimed for clarity, elegance, and a focus on imitating classical Greek authors. Atticism emphasized precision in language, avoidance of contemporary slang, and a dedication to classical ideals. This style was particularly valued in intellectual circles and often seen as the standard for educated discourse in the Empire.

Centers of the Second Sophistic

The movement had several intellectual hubs that were crucial to its development. Major centers of the Second Sophistic included:

Smyrna: The city was a vital center for sophistic training, producing notable figures like Polemo of Laodicea and Aelius Aristides. These sophists gained the patronage of Roman emperors and were celebrated for their eloquence and contributions to rhetoric.
Ephesus: Ephesus was another important city for sophistic education, where rhetoricians delivered speeches that combined traditional Greek themes with the realities of Roman rule.
Athens: As the birthplace of classical Greek philosophy and rhetoric, Athens remained an essential center for learning. It was here that sophists like Herodes Atticus cultivated Atticism, reinforcing the ideals of the classical era.

Prominent Figures of the Second Sophistic

Polemo of Laodicea: Polemo was an influential sophist whose oratorical skills were admired by emperors like Trajan, Hadrian, and Antoninus Pius. He represented the Asianic style and served as an intellectual ambassador between Greek cities and the Roman Empire.
Herodes Atticus: A wealthy Greek aristocrat and prominent sophist, Herodes Atticus gained immense respect from both his contemporaries and the Roman emperors. His teachings and public speeches made significant contributions to the promotion of Attic Greek culture and the revival of classical rhetoric.
Aelius Aristides: Renowned for his devotion to the Atticist style, Aristides was a prolific orator and writer. His works focused on themes of Greek identity, literature, and the moral and cultural superiority of Hellenism.

Influence and Legacy

The Second Sophistic was more than a mere literary or rhetorical trend; it represented a cultural renaissance that reaffirmed Greek intellectual traditions within a Roman framework. By revitalizing classical Greek thought, the sophists provided a way for Greeks to maintain their heritage even under Roman rule. This movement also helped establish a shared cultural identity among the educated elite of the Roman Empire, emphasizing the value of rhetoric, eloquence, and classical education.

Last update: October 9, 2024

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