Xenophon

The Athenian Historian and Philosopher with a Spartan Soul

Xenophon (circa 430–354 BCE) was a prominent Athenian historian, philosopher, and soldier who left a profound impact on both historical and philosophical literature. Although he was a student of Socrates, Xenophon's legacy is often more closely associated with his loyalty to Sparta and his practical approach to leadership and ethics rather than deep philosophical inquiry. Known for his clear, elegant prose and his pragmatic perspective on governance and morality, Xenophon's works offer a unique window into the political and social dynamics of the classical Greek world, particularly in relation to his admiration for Spartan culture and his ambivalence toward Athenian democracy.

Xenophon (left) and Socrates (right) by Raphael Sanzio, Room of the Signature, School of Athens, 1509-1511, Vatican Museums
Xenophon (left) and Socrates (right) by Raphael Sanzio, Room of the Signature, School of Athens, 1509-1511, Vatican Museums

Born into an aristocratic family in the deme of Erchia in Athens, Xenophon was well-positioned within the elite circles of Athenian society. He became a disciple of Socrates, although his writings suggest that he never fully grasped the philosophical depth of his teacher. Unlike Plato, who captured Socrates as a profound moral thinker, Xenophon portrayed him in a more practical and accessible light, emphasizing his everyday wisdom and ethical guidelines. Xenophon’s inclination was always more towards the pragmatic application of ideas rather than abstract philosophical theorization, which influenced the way he engaged with Socratic thought.

Military Career and the Anabasis

Xenophon's military career began under controversial circumstances when he joined the expedition of Cyrus the Younger against his brother, Artaxerxes II, the King of Persia, in 401 BCE. Against Socrates’ advice, Xenophon participated in this campaign at the invitation of his friend Proxenus. The expedition ended in disaster with the defeat at the Battle of Cunaxa, but Xenophon's leadership during the Retreat of the Ten Thousand, a long and perilous march of Greek mercenaries back to safety, became legendary. His detailed account of this journey, the "Anabasis", is not only a masterpiece of military literature but also a testimony to his skills as a commander and strategist.
This work, written in a clear and engaging style, offers a vivid narrative of the challenges faced by the Greek mercenaries, highlighting Xenophon’s ability to motivate and lead his men under dire circumstances. The Anabasis also reflects his appreciation for discipline, courage, and tactical planning—qualities he admired in the Spartans.

Admiration for Sparta and Exile from Athens

Xenophon's deep admiration for Spartan culture became a defining aspect of his life and writings. After the Cunaxa campaign, he continued to fight alongside the Spartans under Agesilaus II, one of Sparta’s most celebrated kings, even participating in battles against his native Athens, such as the Battle of Coronea in 394 BCE. His loyalty to Sparta during these conflicts led to his exile from Athens, marking a clear break with his homeland.
The Spartans rewarded his loyalty by granting him an estate in Scillus, near Olympia, where Xenophon lived for many years. Even after Athens lifted his exile around 365 BCE, Xenophon chose not to return to the city. This decision underscores his philosophical and political alignment with Spartan ideals over the democratic values of his birthplace.

Historical Works and Political Philosophy

Xenophon's historical works reveal both his literary talent and his political inclinations. His "Hellenica" serves as a continuation of Thucydides’ history, chronicling the events in Greece from 411 to 362 BCE, including the Peloponnesian War and the internal strife that followed. Although the Hellenica is valuable for its detailed account of these years, it lacks the critical analysis and objectivity of Thucydides. Xenophon's pro-Spartan bias is evident throughout, reflecting his disdain for Athenian democracy and his admiration for the Spartan way of life.
The "Constitution of the Spartans" is another significant work that extols the virtues of Spartan society, particularly their military discipline and the laws attributed to Lycurgus, which he viewed as the ideal foundation of a strong state. Xenophon's endorsement of Sparta's rigid social structure and emphasis on communal values set him apart from many of his contemporaries who were more aligned with democratic principles.

Socratic Writings: A Different View of Socrates

In addition to his historical and political writings, Xenophon produced several works about Socrates, including the "Memorabilia", "Symposium", and "Apology of Socrates". Unlike Plato's portrayal of Socrates as a profound and often enigmatic philosopher, Xenophon’s depiction is more down-to-earth and practical. His Socrates focuses on ethical conduct in daily life, emphasizing virtues like self-control, friendship, and proper household management.
While these writings lack the philosophical depth and literary sophistication of Plato’s works, they provide valuable insights into Socratic thought from a different perspective—one that highlights the practical and moral aspects of Socratic teachings rather than metaphysical speculation.

Literary Style and Other Works

Xenophon's style is renowned for its clarity and simplicity, making his works highly accessible to a broad audience. He often wrote in a straightforward, unembellished manner, which, while sometimes lacking in vigor, allowed his moral and practical messages to shine through. His "Cyropaedia" (The Education of Cyrus) is a prime example of this approach—a semi-fictional biography of Cyrus the Great, which blends historical narrative with political philosophy. Through this work, Xenophon explores the concept of enlightened monarchy, portraying Cyrus as the ideal ruler whose leadership was based on wisdom, justice, and the welfare of his people.
Other notable works include:

  • "Oeconomicus": A dialogue about household management and the virtues of rural life, emphasizing the value of simple living and agriculture.
  • "Agesilaus": A laudatory biography of the Spartan king, underscoring Xenophon's admiration for his military skills and leadership qualities.
  • "Hiero": A treatise on the nature of tyranny, offering a discussion on how a ruler might govern justly despite having absolute power.
  • "The Cavalry Commander" and "On Horsemanship": Practical manuals on military tactics and equestrian skills, reflecting Xenophon's experience as a soldier.

Iconographic Rediscovery

The iconographic gap in Xenophon's representation was recently bridged with the discovery of a herm portrait inscribed with his name, found on the antiquarian market in Cairo in 1940. This artifact, now housed in the Alexandria Museum, along with another head in Madrid, suggests a common artistic origin, likely a Roman copy of a Greek original from the late 4th century BCE. These discoveries have provided a clearer image of Xenophon, aligning him with the stylistic traditions of Lysippus' circle, although no direct attribution to Lysippus has been established.

Last update: October 18, 2024

DONATE

Go to definitions: A | B | C | D | E | F | G | H | I | J | K | L | M | N | O | P | Q | R | S | T | U | V | W | X | Y | Z