Clothing in Ancient Greece and Rome: Evolution, Styles, and Symbolism
The term 'clothing' refers to the collection of garments and accessories used to cover a person. In ancient societies, clothing not only served functional purposes but also symbolized social status, cultural identity, and personal style. As materials, styles, and accessories evolved, clothing became a rich testament to the diversity and ingenuity of these ancient cultures, deeply intertwined with their social and political structures.
Girls in bikinis (strophium). Mosaic from Roman Villa of the farmhouse in Piazza Armerina (3rd-4th century CE), Enna, Italy. Roman women used as underwear, almost always worn for the bath, the pectoralis band and panties called subligar.
Minoan and Mycenaean Fashion: Pre-Hellenic Influences
In the world of ancient Greece, the style of clothing underwent notable changes, especially compared to pre-Hellenic times.
In the Minoan civilization, women’s clothing was particularly distinctive. Women wore tightly fitted garments on the upper part of the body, often featuring deep necklines that left the breasts exposed. These garments were typically belted or fastened with a high waist, flaring out at the bottom, sometimes featuring flounces (falbalas) or layered skirts. The combination of a cinched waist and a flared bottom suggests that these outfits may have had a ritualistic or religious function.
Minoan 'Goddess of the snakes' with tight corset and falbalas skirt. Polychrome terracotta from Knossos (16th century BC) - Iraklion, Museum Archaeological.
Both men and women also wore another type of garment, a single piece of fabric with short sleeves, which was fitted at the top and flared at the bottom. These garments were often adorned with bands, tassels, or fringes, though it is unclear whether these decorations were embroidered, woven, or sewn on.
In Mycenaean fashion, female attire closely mirrored that of the Minoans, with similar fitted bodices and flared skirts. For men, a fundamental item of clothing was a short kilt, similar to the one worn in Crete, and there were several types and variations of this garment. For ceremonial occasions, men would also wear a long, beltless robe.
The Greeks and Romans: Distinctions in Garments and Cultural Significance
For both Greeks and Romans, trousers (or in Latin bracae) were viewed with disdain, as they were considered the mark of barbarian peoples. Greek and Roman attire was typically characterized by long, flowing garments made from rectangular pieces of fabric, which were draped around the body and fastened with pins or clasps, known in Latin as fibulae.
In ancient Greece, men’s and women’s clothing was quite similar. Most garments were woven at home, with early periods favoring embroidered or patterned fabrics, and later periods shifting toward plain fabrics. The two most important garments were the chiton and the imation. The chiton was a tunic that could be made from wool (the Doric type) or linen (the Ionic type), while the imatio was a type of cloak worn over the tunic.
Funerary stele of Krito and Timarista (V century BC) - Archaeological Museum of Rhodes. Women wear ionic chiton held back on the sleeves and on the shoulders from clips or pins (fibulae)
Couple with chiton and imatio; the man carries a wide-brimmed (petaso) headgear; inside an ancient cup (5th century BC) - London, British Museum.
Another notable garment was the chlamys, a cloak reserved for horsemen and young men (ephebes). The Doric tunic, also known as the peplos, was one of the earliest forms of female dress in Athens. Women sometimes added an additional shawl-like garment called the enkyklon.
Kore, woman with long peplos (V century BC) from Paternò, Civita. Ursino Castle, Catania
Kore 675 from the Acropolis. The kore was originally brightly paintedand and has a Doric peplos with embroidered motifs (6th century BCE). Museum of the Acropolis, Athens
For men, a wide-brimmed straw or felt hat called the petasos was typical, while women often wore a conical headpiece known as the tholia.
Lady with blue and gilt garment, imatio, chitone, pointed hat (tholia) and fan, from Tanagro 325-300 BC.
Travelers favored the pilos (or pileus), another conical hat, which was also associated with Hermes, the Dioscuri, and sometimes even Odysseus.
Hermes in travelling clothes: short chiton covered by the clamide and conical hat (pilos); bronze (5th century BC) - Athens, National Museum.
Roman Clothing: Social Status and Gender Differences
In early Rome, wool was the primary material for garments, though linen became more common over time, especially among women. A common garment for both men and women was the tunic, a simple shirt-like garment that covered the body from shoulders to knees. However, the toga, a draped outer garment, became the symbol of Roman citizenship for men. The toga was usually made from a semicircular piece of fabric, and its elaborate folds required careful arrangement. Specific variations of the toga, marked by purple stripes, were used to distinguish between different social classes, such as senators and equestrians.
Roman citizen wearing the white toga. Marble statue (2nd century AD), from Veleia. National Museum of Antiquities, Parma
Another common garment was the synthesis, a light, loose-fitting robe often worn at banquets. Various cloaks, such as the abolla or the lacerna, were also in use. The paenula was a sleeveless cloak with a head opening and a hood, commonly worn during travel. For women, the primary garments were the tunic and the stola, a long dress fastened with a belt at the waist. A rectangular mantle known as the palla was draped over the shoulders and could be arranged in various ways.
Eros punished in the presence of Aphrodite. Fresco from House of Love Punished, 1st CE, Pompeii - Archeological Museum, Naples. The woman on the left wears a stole held up by studs and a ball that leaves her shoulders uncovered.
Perhaps it is a statue depicting Lucilla. The matron wears a stole and ball. Marble statue from Palazzo Sciarra, inventoried after 1900. Today it is at the Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome
During the Imperial period, silk and cotton fabrics were introduced to Roman fashion, though they were rare and expensive due to their Eastern origins. As the Roman Empire neared its end, long-sleeved tunics became more common, and the circular cloak known as the pallium began to replace the toga. Trousers, which had been scorned in earlier times, became more widespread, especially among soldiers and even the emperors.
Marble statue depicting Commodus Emperor in his hunter costume (1870-1880). He wears a long-sleeved tunic. Author: Vasari Alessandro (1866/ 1929) - Vatican Museums, Rome
Footwear in Ancient Greece and Rome
Footwear in both Greece and Rome was diverse. Although Greeks often preferred to walk barefoot, they also used various types of sandals and shoes. These could be made of leather or fabric, with soles that varied in thickness depending on the occasion. Some footwear was simple, consisting of soles tied to the foot with straps, while others were more elaborate, reflecting the creativity of the artisans who made them.
The Romans, influenced by Etruscan styles, had a wide variety of footwear. Their shoes ranged from simple, flat-soled sandals to more intricate designs, such as the calcei, which were high, closed shoes or boots with a high upper part that covered the foot. These were typically worn by Roman citizens and were forbidden to slaves. The calcei used by senators were traditionally black.
Magistrate with toga pretesta and high calzari (calcei). Bronze statue (c. 100 BCE) - Archeological Museum, Florence
Women wore simple slippers, sandals (soleae), and soft shoes (socci), which were held in place by straps. Roman soldiers wore caligae, a type of military boot made with thick soles and strips of leather woven around the foot and ankle. Officers often had gold and silver embellishments on their caligae.
Roman funerary stele. Relief with Roman slippers by lady (socci) and a handbag (bulga) - Museo Lapidario Morsicano, Avezzano.
(Here lies) Second Poppedia, daughter of publius (Poppedio). Her bones, daughter, are placed here. To Ita, daughter of Mark, his mother: the bones (of Ita) are placed here.
Poppedia Secunda belonged, most likely, to the family of Quintus Poppedius Silon, the leader of the Italic insurgents during the social war (91-89 BC).
The inscription was found in the territory of Ortona dei Marsi in 1814 and was initially made for the daughter Poppedia Seconda, who died before her mother. Later added to the latter.
Last update: October 22, 2024
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